Zephyros
Magistrate
Part I - Crucified Women in Greco-Roman Antiquity
Preface
In this thread i try to poit out the evidence for the crucifixion of women in the ancient world.
In antiquity crucifixion was considered one of the most brutal and shameful modes of death. Yet in classical art usually we see a male figure affixed to the cross; nevertheless, the idea of a female figure on the cross is arousing the interest of Christians internationally.
Historical sources tell that the Romans adopted crucifixion for the execution of slaves, prisoners and rebels, however, Greco-Roman law does not seem to have exempted women from any form of the death penalty and this may be true in other parts of the world.
The evidence for crucifixion of women is not at all prolific, but the references extend over a considerable portion of time, from the Code of Hammurabi to the time of Constantine. Geographically you will find references in Assyria, Babyloninia, Palestine, Rome, Britain, Greece, and India.
Up today no statement was found - except the middle age of Europe - that women were not to be crucified. Crucifixion of women was not unexampled in the Greco-Roman world.
As a public mode of execution crucifixion gave free vent to the sadistic impulses of the executioners (Josephus BJ 5.1 I . I [451]; Seneca Dial. 6.20.3; Ep. 101). It was preceded by scourging and other forms of torture. Criminals were often required to wear a placard around their necks listing the reason for execution (Suetonius Caligula 52.2; Domitian 10.1; Eusebius H E 5.1.44; cf. Mark 15:26 par.). Both men and women were crucified.
Naturally, you should not expect to find as many references to the crucifixion of women as to that of men. Save in exceptional cases (e.g., the Spartans, Boudicca, and Semiramis, queen of Babylon), women did not fight in armies, practice piracy, actively join in military forces during revolutions or constitute an armed power threat to male leaders. These crimes carried with them the danger of punishment by crucifixion. So only a few women had to fear it. After a defeat women and children were normally sold into slavery. Nevertheless, we can produce the following evidence for the crucifixion of women.
Below you will find 10 references to the fact of crucified women. In the literature you will find some more (actually I got 22 hints for this) however these ten are the most evidenced.
Your feedback is welcome!
Reference I - Code of Hammurabi
In Code of Hammurabi, 153 you will find: If a woman has procured the death of her husband on account of another man, they shall crucify that woman. Furthermore, Babylonian and Assyrian law demanded crucifixion for a woman who has procured an abortion.
Note: There is is also a way to read impalement instead of crucifixion.
Reference II - Maccabees
A fairly clear reference to crucifixion / impalement of women during the persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes is found in 1 Maccabees:
Women who had had their children circumcised were put to death, in keeping with the decree, with their babies hung from their necks; their families also and those who had circumcised them were killed (1 Mace 1:60-61).
This is supported by Josephus' account of the incident: Indeed, they were whipped, their bodies mutilated, and while still alive and breathing, they were crucified, while their wives and the sons whom they had circumcised in despite of the king's wishes were strangled, the children being made to hang from the necks of their crucified parents (Antiquities 12.256).
Reference III - Flavius Josephus
You will find the same scenario by Flavius Josephus, he tells that both parents were crucified:
Indeed, they were whipped, their bodies mutilated, and while still alive and breathing, they were crucified, while their wives and the sons whom they had circumcised in despite of the king's wishes were strangled the children being made to hang from the necks of their crucified parents. (Antiquities 12.256).
Josephus Flavius (Wars 2.253-255) also refers to the crucifixion of brigands and those of the common people who were their accomplices. These included women. He also relates the story of Florus' cruelty in Jerusalem (Wars 2.293). On this occasion Florus extracted seventeen talents from the Temple treasury, and Jews passed round a collection box for him. He responded to the insult by attacking Jerusalem. He asked that the ring leaders of the collection should be handed over to him (Wars 2.301). Upon their pleading for the "culprits" he ordered his soldiers to sack the "upper market" (Wars 2.305), but the soldiers went into every house and many of the citizens were handed over to Florus for scourging and crucifixion:
Many of the peaceable citizens were arrested and brought before Florus, who had them first scourged and then crucified. The total number of that day's victims, including women and children, amounted to about three thousand sixhundred (Josephus, Wars 2.307-8).
Reference IV - The case of Ida & Mundus
Another interesting case appears in Josephus (Antiquities 18.65-80).
Paulina was a certain noble Roman lady, Mundus - apriest - fell in love with her and, because she refused to make love, he accepted the help of a freedwoman, Ida. The case was brought before the Emperor. Josephus reports as follows:
When Tiberius had fully informed himself ... he crucified Mundus and Ida.
Mundus because of making love with a married woman and Ida because of her hellish doing and it was she who had contrived the whole plot against the lady's Paulina's honor (Antiquities 18.79).
Reference V - Pedanius Secundus
Tacitus in his Annals informs us of a case in which the city prefect by the name of Pedanius Secundus was assassinated by his slave. The reasons are not clear: Pedanius might have backed out of an agreement to free his slave at a certain price or there might have been a sexual rivalry between the two men.
According to ancient Roman law, if a slave murdered his master, all the slaves of the household should suffer the same punishment in case they were accomplices in the deed and because they represented a continual threat of danger to their masters/mistresses.
In this case the majority of these slaves were innocent women and children.
The Senate, in particular Gaius Cassius Longinus, then demanded execution of all of his 400 household slaves in accordance with Roman law. The common people demanded the release of the innocent, but Nero deployed the Roman army to prevent the mob from disrupting the executions.
Tacitus says that his household, which included four hundred slaves, were crucified: Women, old slaves, children, without distinction of age or sex, each of them were sent to the cross.
Tiberius was obliged to line the whole length of the road, by which the condemned were being marched to punishment, with detachment of soldiers (Annals 14.45).
<End of Part I>
To be continued with Part II
Preface
In this thread i try to poit out the evidence for the crucifixion of women in the ancient world.
In antiquity crucifixion was considered one of the most brutal and shameful modes of death. Yet in classical art usually we see a male figure affixed to the cross; nevertheless, the idea of a female figure on the cross is arousing the interest of Christians internationally.
Historical sources tell that the Romans adopted crucifixion for the execution of slaves, prisoners and rebels, however, Greco-Roman law does not seem to have exempted women from any form of the death penalty and this may be true in other parts of the world.
The evidence for crucifixion of women is not at all prolific, but the references extend over a considerable portion of time, from the Code of Hammurabi to the time of Constantine. Geographically you will find references in Assyria, Babyloninia, Palestine, Rome, Britain, Greece, and India.
Up today no statement was found - except the middle age of Europe - that women were not to be crucified. Crucifixion of women was not unexampled in the Greco-Roman world.
As a public mode of execution crucifixion gave free vent to the sadistic impulses of the executioners (Josephus BJ 5.1 I . I [451]; Seneca Dial. 6.20.3; Ep. 101). It was preceded by scourging and other forms of torture. Criminals were often required to wear a placard around their necks listing the reason for execution (Suetonius Caligula 52.2; Domitian 10.1; Eusebius H E 5.1.44; cf. Mark 15:26 par.). Both men and women were crucified.
Naturally, you should not expect to find as many references to the crucifixion of women as to that of men. Save in exceptional cases (e.g., the Spartans, Boudicca, and Semiramis, queen of Babylon), women did not fight in armies, practice piracy, actively join in military forces during revolutions or constitute an armed power threat to male leaders. These crimes carried with them the danger of punishment by crucifixion. So only a few women had to fear it. After a defeat women and children were normally sold into slavery. Nevertheless, we can produce the following evidence for the crucifixion of women.
Below you will find 10 references to the fact of crucified women. In the literature you will find some more (actually I got 22 hints for this) however these ten are the most evidenced.
Your feedback is welcome!
Reference I - Code of Hammurabi
In Code of Hammurabi, 153 you will find: If a woman has procured the death of her husband on account of another man, they shall crucify that woman. Furthermore, Babylonian and Assyrian law demanded crucifixion for a woman who has procured an abortion.
Note: There is is also a way to read impalement instead of crucifixion.
Reference II - Maccabees
A fairly clear reference to crucifixion / impalement of women during the persecution by Antiochus Epiphanes is found in 1 Maccabees:
Women who had had their children circumcised were put to death, in keeping with the decree, with their babies hung from their necks; their families also and those who had circumcised them were killed (1 Mace 1:60-61).
This is supported by Josephus' account of the incident: Indeed, they were whipped, their bodies mutilated, and while still alive and breathing, they were crucified, while their wives and the sons whom they had circumcised in despite of the king's wishes were strangled, the children being made to hang from the necks of their crucified parents (Antiquities 12.256).
Reference III - Flavius Josephus
You will find the same scenario by Flavius Josephus, he tells that both parents were crucified:
Indeed, they were whipped, their bodies mutilated, and while still alive and breathing, they were crucified, while their wives and the sons whom they had circumcised in despite of the king's wishes were strangled the children being made to hang from the necks of their crucified parents. (Antiquities 12.256).
Josephus Flavius (Wars 2.253-255) also refers to the crucifixion of brigands and those of the common people who were their accomplices. These included women. He also relates the story of Florus' cruelty in Jerusalem (Wars 2.293). On this occasion Florus extracted seventeen talents from the Temple treasury, and Jews passed round a collection box for him. He responded to the insult by attacking Jerusalem. He asked that the ring leaders of the collection should be handed over to him (Wars 2.301). Upon their pleading for the "culprits" he ordered his soldiers to sack the "upper market" (Wars 2.305), but the soldiers went into every house and many of the citizens were handed over to Florus for scourging and crucifixion:
Many of the peaceable citizens were arrested and brought before Florus, who had them first scourged and then crucified. The total number of that day's victims, including women and children, amounted to about three thousand sixhundred (Josephus, Wars 2.307-8).
Reference IV - The case of Ida & Mundus
Another interesting case appears in Josephus (Antiquities 18.65-80).
Paulina was a certain noble Roman lady, Mundus - apriest - fell in love with her and, because she refused to make love, he accepted the help of a freedwoman, Ida. The case was brought before the Emperor. Josephus reports as follows:
When Tiberius had fully informed himself ... he crucified Mundus and Ida.
Mundus because of making love with a married woman and Ida because of her hellish doing and it was she who had contrived the whole plot against the lady's Paulina's honor (Antiquities 18.79).
Reference V - Pedanius Secundus
Tacitus in his Annals informs us of a case in which the city prefect by the name of Pedanius Secundus was assassinated by his slave. The reasons are not clear: Pedanius might have backed out of an agreement to free his slave at a certain price or there might have been a sexual rivalry between the two men.
According to ancient Roman law, if a slave murdered his master, all the slaves of the household should suffer the same punishment in case they were accomplices in the deed and because they represented a continual threat of danger to their masters/mistresses.
In this case the majority of these slaves were innocent women and children.
The Senate, in particular Gaius Cassius Longinus, then demanded execution of all of his 400 household slaves in accordance with Roman law. The common people demanded the release of the innocent, but Nero deployed the Roman army to prevent the mob from disrupting the executions.
Tacitus says that his household, which included four hundred slaves, were crucified: Women, old slaves, children, without distinction of age or sex, each of them were sent to the cross.
Tiberius was obliged to line the whole length of the road, by which the condemned were being marched to punishment, with detachment of soldiers (Annals 14.45).
<End of Part I>
To be continued with Part II
